You’ve traced your African American ancestry back to the 1870 U.S. Census, only to hit what genealogists often call the “1870 brick wall.” You’ve read books and articles about slavery in America and now face the question: How do I research my family’s history beyond emancipation? How do I identify and document my enslaved ancestors?

Step One: Determine If Your Ancestors Were Enslaved

Before diving into records, first confirm whether your ancestors were enslaved. Start by checking the 1860 U.S. Census. If you locate your family living in a slave state and listed by name, they were Free People of Color (FPOC). Although over 200,000 African Americans were free before the Civil War, the vast majority (more than 4 million) were enslaved, particularly in the South.

If your family was enslaved, identifying the last slave owner is essential. Enslaved people were considered property, and their names typically appear only in records belonging to their enslavers. Without knowing who enslaved your ancestors, you cannot move further into slavery-era records.

Early in my own journey, I assumed all African Americans adopted the surnames of their last slave owners. But I discovered this wasn’t always true. While some did, many chose entirely different names or had surnames that were used secretly before emancipation.

Key Realities to Keep in Mind

1. Slavery ended in 1865 in most of the South.
2. Spouses were often enslaved on different farms/plantations.
3. Enslavement by the same family across generations was common.
4. Some enslaved people had multiple owners—including women.
5. Some African Americans adopted surnames unrelated to slave owners.
6. “Mulatto” ancestry doesn’t always indicate the slave owner was the father.
7. Slave owners obtained enslaved people through:
   • Inheritance
   • Public auctions and slave markets
   • Sheriff sales
   • Estate liquidations

Step Two: Revisit Family Conversations

Reinterview your elders. Ask if your family always used the same surname or if it changed after slavery. Record any stories about ancestors who lived during or immediately after the slavery era. Clarify where the family lived post-emancipation; they often remained near the plantation. Take note of surnames of other local families that could indicate kinship.

Step Three: Study the 1870 Neighborhood – Cluster Research

Once you find your family in the 1870 Census, examine the entire neighborhood. Pay close attention to white families living nearby. Scroll at least ten pages before and after your ancestors’ household. Formerly enslaved people often remained in proximity to their enslavers or fellow freed people from the same farm or plantation. This method known as cluster genealogy can help identify potential slave owners and community networks.

Step Four: Investigate the 1850 and 1860 Slave Schedules

Use clues from cluster research to explore the 1850 and 1860 Slave Schedules. Most U.S. federal slave schedules from 1850 and 1860 do not include the names of enslaved people, only their age, sex, and color, listed under the name of the enslaver. However, there are a few notable exceptions where the names of enslaved people do appear. Compare this data with what you know about your ancestors; but be cautious not to draw conclusions without corroborating records.

Also consult the 1850 and 1860 population censuses. These can help identify white families with matching surnames or households linked to the names from the slave schedules.

Step Five: Research the Slaveholding Family

Deeply investigate the potential slaveholding family. Their records will likely contain references to your ancestors. Focus on:

• Migration patterns and places of birth (slave owners and your ancestors)
• Death records and wills
• Maiden names, children, and sons-in-law
• Parents of the slave owner and parents of his wife/wives

If a woman appears as the slave owner in slave schedules, probate or other records, she may have inherited slaves from her husband or father. Trace their histories as well.

Plantation records, if they survive, can be goldmines of information. Check with local historical societies or state archives. Check out some online resources HERE.

Step Six: Search County Court Records

Since enslaved people were legally treated as property, court records often reference them by first name. The most valuable records include:

• Wills and Probate Files: Often list enslaved people by name, age, or value.
• Estate Inventories and Appraisals: Detail property, enslaved people included.
• Deeds: Bills of sale and transfers may list names and transactions.
• Civil Lawsuits: May involve enslaved people in disputes.
• Tax Records: Occasionally list enslaved people.

These documents are typically held at county courthouses, but many are also microfilmed at state archives or digitized on sites like FamilySearch.org, Ancestry.com, and Fold3.com. Also, check your state for any online records. A good example is the Library of Virginia’s Chancery Records site that can be accessed HERE.

Step Seven: Use Other Resources

Explore additional collections and databases:

• Civil War Pension Records – www.nara.gov
• Freedman’s Bank Records – Ancestry, FamilySearch
• Freedmen’s Bureau Records – www.discoverfreedmen.org
• Southern Claims Commission Files – Ancestry, Fold3
• Slave Narratives, Church Records, Donated Family Papers
• FamilySearch Full-Text Search – familysearch.org/en/search/full-text

State archives and historical societies often hold additional unique materials. Everything is not online.

Step Eight: Learn from Case Studies and Others’ Journeys

Reading blogs, books, and case studies by other genealogists can provide direction and encouragement. Enslaved ancestor research is not a linear or easy process; it’s a challenging journey that requires time, persistence, and critical thinking. But many others have done it, and their roadmaps can guide you.

I’ve shared many successful cases on my own blog and encourage others to read widely and never give up. Our ancestors deserve to be found — and remembered.